{"schemaVersion":"maha-epistemic/1.0","evidencePolicyVersion":"mps/0.1","generatedAt":"2026-08-24T00:00:00.000Z","domain":{"slug":"quantum-systems","name":"Quantum systems and advanced energy","description":"Physical architectures, control systems, measurements, models, and readiness boundaries kept separate from formal possibility claims.","stressPoint":"Formal mathematics can describe a valid architecture without establishing that a physical implementation is manufacturable, fault tolerant, or commercially ready.","accent":"blue"},"lifecycle":{"status":"adversarial-pilot","foundationalTarget":23,"canonicalFactoryRecords":22,"outstandingFactoryRecords":1},"counts":{"graphRecords":25,"graphEdges":31,"publicCanonicalRecords":23,"withheldRecords":2},"records":[{"id":"urn:maha:record:error-mitigation-versus-correction","title":"Error mitigation versus error correction","recordKind":"comparison","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/comparisons/error-mitigation-versus-correction","contentHash":"sha256:c9a550c46060bf2c5bc409a9b84580ff1368538a1f8b9f84b634989d97658614","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:error-mitigation-versus-correction","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Error Mitigation for Short-Depth Quantum Circuits.","boundary":"Reduced estimator bias must not be relabeled as a logical error rate or fault-tolerance demonstration.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-temme-error-mitigation-2017"],"statement":"The cited mitigation constructions operate without additional encoded qubit resources and target expectation-value bias in short-depth circuits.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Gambetta"],"boundary":"Mitigation reduces bias under assumptions and sampling overhead; it does not encode and correct arbitrary faults or guarantee scalable computation.","publisher":"Physical Review Letters, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper presents zero-noise extrapolation and quasiprobability error-cancellation schemes for expectation estimates in short-depth noisy circuits.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.180509","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2017-11-03","exactLocator":"Abstract; extrapolation construction; quasiprobability construction; numerical examples.","conflictsOfInterest":"The authors were affiliated with IBM Research."}],"boundaries":["Reduced estimator bias must not be relabeled as a logical error rate or fault-tolerance demonstration.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the error mitigation versus error correction record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:hardware-benchmark-scope","title":"Quantum hardware benchmark scope","recordKind":"comparison","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/comparisons/hardware-benchmark-scope","contentHash":"sha256:dacd0f0be71cd6cb356d70fa531fae9b7fede5df43cec4680923e4493b823f4e","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:hardware-benchmark-scope","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Validating quantum computers using randomized model circuits.","boundary":"No one benchmark is a platform-independent proxy for usefulness, reliability, cost, or fault tolerance.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-cross-quantum-volume-2019"],"statement":"The cited quantum-volume protocol demonstrates that a benchmark is operationally defined by a circuit ensemble, execution rule, statistical acceptance test, and device configuration.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Gambetta"],"boundary":"Quantum volume is one aggregate benchmark and does not establish application advantage, fault tolerance, or equivalence across every architecture and compiler.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper defines quantum volume through random circuits of equal width and depth and reports measurements on specified transmon devices.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.100.032328","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2019-09-20","exactLocator":"Abstract; protocol definition; experimental demonstrations; appendices.","conflictsOfInterest":"The authors were affiliated with IBM Research and measured IBM devices."}],"boundaries":["No one benchmark is a platform-independent proxy for usefulness, reliability, cost, or fault tolerance.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the quantum hardware benchmark scope record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:physical-and-logical-qubits","title":"Physical and logical qubits","recordKind":"comparison","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/comparisons/physical-and-logical-qubits","contentHash":"sha256:bd8de99e07e022a6cb3c820b2b70c111d1b60f143f561bdba047aa475f078ce5","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:physical-and-logical-qubits","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Scheme for reducing decoherence in quantum computer memory.","boundary":"An encoded state is not automatically fault tolerant; syndrome extraction, gates, leakage, correlated errors, and decoding remain separate.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-shor-qec-1995"],"statement":"The cited code construction demonstrates that one logical state can be encoded across multiple physical qubits to correct specified error classes.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Shor"],"boundary":"A code construction does not establish that a physical system operates below threshold or that its full control stack satisfies fault-tolerance assumptions.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper gives a quantum code construction that protects encoded information against specified single-qubit errors under its model.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.52.R2493","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"1995-10-01","exactLocator":"Abstract; encoding construction; error-correction argument."}],"boundaries":["An encoded state is not automatically fault tolerant; syndrome extraction, gates, leakage, correlated errors, and decoding remain separate.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the physical and logical qubits record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:circuit-quantum-electrodynamics","title":"Circuit quantum electrodynamics","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/circuit-quantum-electrodynamics","contentHash":"sha256:8e94939163902cc17d41bc6c27aa6949dc9262b609d670f286b23cc6cc437d10","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:circuit-quantum-electrodynamics","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Cavity quantum electrodynamics for superconducting electrical circuits: An architecture for quantum computation.","boundary":"The analysis is not a measured universal coupling, coherence, or readout-fidelity guarantee.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-blais-circuit-qed-2004"],"statement":"The cited circuit-QED analysis shows a parameter regime in which qubit–resonator coupling can exceed modeled damping rates and support dispersive control and measurement.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-fowler-surface-code-2012","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324","title":"Surface codes: Towards practical large-scale quantum computation","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Austin G. Fowler","Matteo Mariantoni","John M. Martinis","Andrew N. Cleland"],"boundary":"The numerical estimates depend on code, decoder, noise, geometry, scheduling, and physical-operation assumptions.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper explains stabilizer measurement, logical encoding, movement, gates, and estimated fault-tolerance properties for surface-code architectures.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2012-09-18","exactLocator":"Abstract; Sections II–XVI; appendices and numerical threshold estimates."}],"boundaries":["A threshold theorem or estimate does not show that a particular device is below threshold under complete realistic noise.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the fault-tolerance threshold condition record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:linear-optical-quantum-computation","title":"Linear-optical quantum computation","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/linear-optical-quantum-computation","contentHash":"sha256:b1e91c027404ad9d094a8036d060d6de74e0181770a62a800dcab4e4fa1dd2dc","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:linear-optical-quantum-computation","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in A scheme for efficient quantum computation with linear optics.","boundary":"Formal universality does not establish practical source efficiency, detector performance, loss tolerance, or resource cost.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-klm-linear-optics-2001"],"statement":"The cited KLM construction shows that universal quantum computation is formally possible with linear optical components plus measurement-induced operations and resources.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-klm-linear-optics-2001","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/35051009","title":"A scheme for efficient quantum computation with linear optics","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["E. Knill","R. Laflamme","G. J. Milburn"],"boundary":"A formal scheme does not establish deterministic component performance, integrated manufacturability, loss tolerance at scale, or economic utility.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The paper constructs a universal quantum-computation scheme using single-photon sources, linear optical elements, photodetectors, feed-forward, and ancilla resources.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/35051009","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2001-01-04","exactLocator":"Abstract; main construction; resource and error discussion."}],"boundaries":["Formal universality does not establish practical source efficiency, detector performance, loss tolerance, or resource cost.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the linear-optical quantum computation record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:neutral-atom-optical-tweezer-arrays","title":"Neutral-atom optical-tweezer arrays","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/neutral-atom-optical-tweezer-arrays","contentHash":"sha256:2351bcc237d7b14e160fcf9ab63ce43241be23e08316386c8943aa88794e87d7","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:neutral-atom-optical-tweezer-arrays","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Logical quantum processor based on reconfigurable atom arrays.","boundary":"The reported array does not establish arbitrary atom loading, loss correction, control parallelism, or production availability.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-bluvstein-neutral-atom-2023"],"statement":"The cited study implements programmable atom rearrangement and encoded operations in a reconfigurable optical-tweezer processor.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-bluvstein-neutral-atom-2023","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06927-3","title":"Logical quantum processor based on reconfigurable atom arrays","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Dolev Bluvstein","Simon J. Evered","Alexandra A. Geim","Sophie H. Li","et al."],"boundary":"The results are specific to the reported atom array, control sequence, code constructions, metrics, and post-selection conditions.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The study reports programmable operations on reconfigurable neutral-atom arrays and experiments with encoded logical qubits and error-detection structures.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/s41586-023-06927-3","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2023-12-06","exactLocator":"Abstract; Figures 1–5; Methods; Extended Data.","conflictsOfInterest":"The article declares company relationships involving QuEra Computing."}],"boundaries":["The reported array does not establish arbitrary atom loading, loss correction, control parallelism, or production availability.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the neutral-atom optical-tweezer arrays record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:silicon-spin-qubits","title":"Silicon and quantum-dot spin qubits","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/silicon-spin-qubits","contentHash":"sha256:5d7ca734bc4fc853ebd1ae8dc54f3ce75c6515087b97be68bea2dd87402f9b80","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:silicon-spin-qubits","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Quantum computation with quantum dots.","boundary":"The proposal does not settle material, valley, charge-noise, fabrication, interconnect, or cryogenic-control limitations.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-loss-divincenzo-spin-1998"],"statement":"The cited proposal defines spin-qubit initialization, exchange-based gates, and measurement requirements in coupled quantum dots.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-loss-divincenzo-spin-1998","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.57.120","title":"Quantum computation with quantum dots","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Daniel Loss","David P. DiVincenzo"],"boundary":"The proposal does not establish a particular material stack, fabrication yield, control fidelity, or scalable processor implementation.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper proposes electron spins in coupled quantum dots as qubits and analyses exchange-based gates, initialization, and measurement requirements.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.57.120","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"1998-01-01","exactLocator":"Abstract; Sections II–V; exchange-gate and readout proposals."}],"boundaries":["The proposal does not settle material, valley, charge-noise, fabrication, interconnect, or cryogenic-control limitations.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the silicon and quantum-dot spin qubits record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:transmon-qubit","title":"Transmon qubit","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/transmon-qubit","contentHash":"sha256:a8416386ce51c8c855d9198832fab8ac4ddfacb0f672262172bec5d6d0b492dc","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:transmon-energy-ratio","scope":"Circuit quantization and numerical analysis of the transmon regime described in the 2007 Physical Review A paper.","boundary":"The model does not by itself establish a fabrication yield, device lifetime, logical error rate, system-scale advantage, or commercially useful fault-tolerant computer.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-koch-transmon-2007"],"statement":"In the transmon design analysed by Koch and colleagues, increasing the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy suppresses charge dispersion exponentially while anharmonicity decreases only by a weak power law.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"Independent experimental implementations are outside this bounded source record and are not counted here.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"The relationship is model- and parameter-dependent; this Phase 1 record does not reproduce a numerical device-specific uncertainty interval."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-koch-transmon-2007","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.76.042319","title":"Charge-insensitive qubit design derived from the Cooper pair box","rights":{"note":"The Maha page provides original summary and boundary language and links to the publisher record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Jens Koch","Terri M. Yu","Jay Gambetta","A. A. Houck","D. I. Schuster","et al."],"boundary":"It is a design and modelling paper, not proof of later processor-scale fault tolerance, manufacturing economics, or strategic advantage.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The source introduces and analyses the transmon circuit regime, including the different scaling of charge dispersion and anharmonicity with the Josephson-to-charging-energy ratio.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.76.042319","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2007-10-12","exactLocator":"Abstract; Sections II–IV; equations and numerical analysis defining the transmon regime."}],"boundaries":["A valid circuit model does not establish physical manufacturability or system-level fault tolerance.","Published device metrics cannot be transferred across chips, fabrication processes, control stacks, or operating conditions without a comparison contract."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer that superconducting qubits have achieved economically useful fault-tolerant quantum computation.","Do not infer processor advantage from the transmon design relationship alone."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:trapped-ion-qccd-architecture","title":"Trapped-ion QCCD architecture","recordKind":"concept","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/concepts/trapped-ion-qccd-architecture","contentHash":"sha256:32f764758ba96c676c86bab32472ef26da3709b17cfa92c501d45a3ebf5d6783","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:trapped-ion-qccd-architecture","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Demonstration of the trapped-ion quantum CCD computer architecture.","boundary":"One integrated QCCD demonstration does not establish indefinite transport depth or industrial-scale replication.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-pino-qccd-2021"],"statement":"The cited experiment integrates ion transport, parallel zones, measurement, and programmable operations in a cryogenic surface-trap QCCD device.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-pino-qccd-2021","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03318-4","title":"Demonstration of the trapped-ion quantum CCD computer architecture","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["J. M. Pino","J. M. Dreiling","C. Figgatt","J. P. Gaebler","et al."],"boundary":"The demonstrated device and workloads do not establish arbitrary scale, general fault tolerance, or production economics.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The study integrates a cryogenic surface trap, ion transport, multiple interaction zones, control, measurement, and representative circuits in one programmable QCCD device.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/s41586-021-03318-4","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2021-04-07","exactLocator":"Abstract; Figures 1–4; Methods; Extended Data.","conflictsOfInterest":"Several authors were employees of Honeywell Quantum Solutions when the work was published."}],"boundaries":["One integrated QCCD demonstration does not establish indefinite transport depth or industrial-scale replication.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the trapped-ion qccd architecture record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:logical-error-suppression","title":"Logical-error suppression with code distance","recordKind":"measurement","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/measurements/logical-error-suppression","contentHash":"sha256:52b879251adefe844287a7da085d242e0e1162f0f94db67bb25865e7e3b9759c","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:logical-error-suppression","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Suppressing quantum errors by scaling a surface code logical qubit.","boundary":"The comparison does not establish arbitrary-distance scaling, universal logical gates, or a complete fault-tolerant stack.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-google-logical-error-2023"],"statement":"The cited experiment reports lower logical error per cycle for a larger surface-code memory than for a smaller one under the stated circuit, device, and decoder.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-google-logical-error-2023","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05434-1","title":"Suppressing quantum errors by scaling a surface code logical qubit","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Rajeev Acharya","Igor Aleiner","Richard Allen","Trond I. Andersen","et al."],"boundary":"The result does not establish a complete fault-tolerant computer, arbitrary-depth logical computation, or transferable logical error rates.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The experiment compares surface-code memories of different distances on a superconducting processor and reports the measured logical-error behavior under the stated circuits and decoder.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/s41586-022-05434-1","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2023-02-22","exactLocator":"Abstract; Figures 1–4; Methods; Extended Data.","conflictsOfInterest":"Most authors were affiliated with Google Quantum AI and the experiment used Google hardware."}],"boundaries":["The comparison does not establish arbitrary-distance scaling, universal logical gates, or a complete fault-tolerant stack.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the logical-error suppression with code distance record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:quantum-volume-benchmark","title":"Quantum volume benchmark","recordKind":"measurement","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/measurements/quantum-volume-benchmark","contentHash":"sha256:8d74dea03cd78602f0267287eaefe9cc0e6dc014ba38426fbf86e874fa0710fe","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:quantum-volume-benchmark","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Validating quantum computers using randomized model circuits.","boundary":"A single aggregate benchmark cannot establish application advantage or isolate every hardware, calibration, compiler, and topology limitation.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-cross-quantum-volume-2019"],"statement":"The cited paper defines quantum volume and reports the protocol on specified transmon processors.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-cross-quantum-volume-2019","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.100.032328","title":"Validating quantum computers using randomized model circuits","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Andrew W. Cross","Lev S. Bishop","Sarah Sheldon","Paul D. Nation","Jay M. Gambetta"],"boundary":"Quantum volume is one aggregate benchmark and does not establish application advantage, fault tolerance, or equivalence across every architecture and compiler.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper defines quantum volume through random circuits of equal width and depth and reports measurements on specified transmon devices.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.100.032328","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2019-09-20","exactLocator":"Abstract; protocol definition; experimental demonstrations; appendices.","conflictsOfInterest":"The authors were affiliated with IBM Research and measured IBM devices."}],"boundaries":["A single aggregate benchmark cannot establish application advantage or isolate every hardware, calibration, compiler, and topology limitation.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the quantum volume benchmark record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:dispersive-qubit-readout","title":"Dispersive superconducting-qubit readout","recordKind":"mechanism","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/mechanisms/dispersive-qubit-readout","contentHash":"sha256:b4886fc30de10eff6f77c787901eb2eb37f97616b6633c33964cd166bc7c9a73","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:dispersive-qubit-readout","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Cavity quantum electrodynamics for superconducting electrical circuits: An architecture for quantum computation.","boundary":"A dispersive Hamiltonian does not establish assignment fidelity, quantum nondemolition performance, amplifier noise, or multiplexed scaling.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-blais-circuit-qed-2004"],"statement":"The cited circuit-QED analysis derives qubit-state-dependent dispersive shifts and a measurement architecture using the resonator response.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-evered-rydberg-gates-2023","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06481-y","title":"High-fidelity parallel entangling gates on a neutral-atom quantum computer","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Simon J. Evered","Dolev Bluvstein","Marcin Kalinowski","Sepehr Ebadi","et al."],"boundary":"Reported gate metrics are tied to the specific atom species, trap geometry, pulse family, calibration, analysis, and experimental conditions.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The study demonstrates parallel neutral-atom entangling operations based on Rydberg blockade and characterizes them with multiple benchmarking methods.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/s41586-023-06481-y","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2023-10-11","exactLocator":"Abstract; Figures 1–4; Methods; Extended Data.","conflictsOfInterest":"The article declares company relationships involving QuEra Computing."}],"boundaries":["The measured fidelities cannot be transferred to different atom species, spacing, pulse families, array sizes, or error definitions.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the rydberg-blockade entangling gates record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:stabilizer-syndrome-measurement","title":"Stabilizer and syndrome measurement","recordKind":"mechanism","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/mechanisms/stabilizer-syndrome-measurement","contentHash":"sha256:69fd5a4922e2d1ee91e86c863f7d7359733a722ab06528c3a62f631782f9d90f","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:stabilizer-syndrome-measurement","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Surface codes: Towards practical large-scale quantum computation.","boundary":"Syndrome data are indirect and decoder-dependent; they do not identify every physical mechanism or guarantee correction.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-fowler-surface-code-2012"],"statement":"The cited surface-code construction specifies local stabilizer checks and syndrome histories used to infer likely physical errors.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-fowler-surface-code-2012","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324","title":"Surface codes: Towards practical large-scale quantum computation","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Austin G. Fowler","Matteo Mariantoni","John M. Martinis","Andrew N. Cleland"],"boundary":"The numerical estimates depend on code, decoder, noise, geometry, scheduling, and physical-operation assumptions.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper explains stabilizer measurement, logical encoding, movement, gates, and estimated fault-tolerance properties for surface-code architectures.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2012-09-18","exactLocator":"Abstract; Sections II–XVI; appendices and numerical threshold estimates."}],"boundaries":["Syndrome data are indirect and decoder-dependent; they do not identify every physical mechanism or guarantee correction.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the stabilizer and syndrome measurement record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:cryogenic-superconducting-control-stack","title":"Cryogenic superconducting control stack","recordKind":"method","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/methods/cryogenic-superconducting-control-stack","contentHash":"sha256:9e9c32b8b4b9cd2a5876fb964b6dc0288b4b4620f2c719f0784718c6d94a3c0b","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:cryogenic-superconducting-control-stack","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor.","boundary":"One experimental control stack does not define universal wiring density, heat load, calibration throughput, reliability, or manufacturing cost for larger processors.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-arute-random-circuits-2019"],"statement":"The cited processor study documents a dilution-refrigerated superconducting device together with room-temperature waveform generation, cryogenic signal conditioning, amplification, multiplexed readout, and repeated calibration procedures.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-arute-random-circuits-2019","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1666-5","title":"Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Frank Arute","Kunal Arya","Ryan Babbush","Dave Bacon","et al."],"boundary":"The reported advantage is task-, circuit-, fidelity-, classical-algorithm-, and comparison-hardware-specific and does not imply general commercial advantage.","publisher":"Nature","establishes":"The study reports random-circuit sampling on a 53-qubit superconducting processor and compares that bounded task with the classical methods and hardware considered in the paper.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1038/s41586-019-1666-5","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2019-10-23","exactLocator":"Abstract; Figures 1–4; Methods; Supplementary Information; data availability.","conflictsOfInterest":"Most authors were affiliated with Google and the work evaluates Google hardware."}],"boundaries":["One experimental control stack does not define universal wiring density, heat load, calibration throughput, reliability, or manufacturing cost for larger processors.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the cryogenic superconducting control stack record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:interleaved-randomized-benchmarking","title":"Interleaved randomized benchmarking","recordKind":"method","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/methods/interleaved-randomized-benchmarking","contentHash":"sha256:7531a2a7479af7f9cf1061dc7e476308a1a0bfbd98dee9d3a15d3e62a4e156c2","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:interleaved-randomized-benchmarking","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Efficient Measurement of Quantum Gate Error by Interleaved Randomized Benchmarking.","boundary":"The result remains an estimator under assumptions and is not identical to application-level failure probability.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-magesan-interleaved-rb-2012"],"statement":"The cited method derives bounds on a target gate’s error by comparing interleaved and reference sequence decays.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-magesan-interleaved-rb-2012","url":"https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.080505","title":"Efficient Measurement of Quantum Gate Error by Interleaved Randomized Benchmarking","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Easwar Magesan","Jay M. 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Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-shor-qec-1995","url":"https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.52.R2493","title":"Scheme for reducing decoherence in quantum computer memory","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Peter W. Shor"],"boundary":"A code construction does not establish that a physical system operates below threshold or that its full control stack satisfies fault-tolerance assumptions.","publisher":"Physical Review A, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper gives a quantum code construction that protects encoded information against specified single-qubit errors under its model.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevA.52.R2493","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"1995-10-01","exactLocator":"Abstract; encoding construction; error-correction argument."}],"boundaries":["Code existence does not demonstrate a below-threshold physical implementation or net logical improvement after all operations.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the quantum error correction record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:quantum-error-mitigation","title":"Quantum error mitigation","recordKind":"method","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/methods/quantum-error-mitigation","contentHash":"sha256:f1d566d61ac04b2e4dc455f090cd7d2001684e7cafbc66e6e831277a16e97c84","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:quantum-error-mitigation","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Error Mitigation for Short-Depth Quantum Circuits.","boundary":"Mitigation can impose large sampling overhead and does not provide the fault containment of error-correcting codes.","claimKind":"theoretical-model","sourceIds":["source-temme-error-mitigation-2017"],"statement":"The cited paper constructs zero-noise extrapolation and quasiprobability cancellation for short-depth noisy-circuit expectation estimates.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-temme-error-mitigation-2017","url":"https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.180509","title":"Error Mitigation for Short-Depth Quantum Circuits","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Kristan Temme","Sergey Bravyi","Jay M. Gambetta"],"boundary":"Mitigation reduces bias under assumptions and sampling overhead; it does not encode and correct arbitrary faults or guarantee scalable computation.","publisher":"Physical Review Letters, American Physical Society","establishes":"The paper presents zero-noise extrapolation and quasiprobability error-cancellation schemes for expectation estimates in short-depth noisy circuits.","identifiers":[{"value":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.180509","scheme":"doi"}],"publishedAt":"2017-11-03","exactLocator":"Abstract; extrapolation construction; quasiprobability construction; numerical examples.","conflictsOfInterest":"The authors were affiliated with IBM Research."}],"boundaries":["Mitigation can impose large sampling overhead and does not provide the fault containment of error-correcting codes.","A source-bounded mechanism, method, or measurement record does not establish manufacturing yield, economic advantage, safety, clinical benefit, or commercial readiness unless those outcomes are measured in a separately scoped record."],"prohibitedInferences":["Do not infer general quantum-computing readiness from the quantum error mitigation record alone.","Do not transfer a reported result across hardware, organisms, protocols, datasets, operating conditions, or outcome definitions without a declared comparison contract."]},{"id":"urn:maha:record:random-circuit-sampling","title":"Random-circuit sampling","recordKind":"method","reviewState":"published-canonical","canonicalPath":"/knowledge/quantum-systems/methods/random-circuit-sampling","contentHash":"sha256:fc951a2796f2a798a362b565182bdcec86666aec82e3e0a489d272c24639841a","claims":[{"id":"urn:maha:claim:random-circuit-sampling","scope":"The models, apparatus, protocols, datasets, and comparisons reported in Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor.","boundary":"A speed comparison for random-circuit sampling is not evidence of faster performance on unrelated industrial workloads.","claimKind":"empirical-claim","sourceIds":["source-arute-random-circuits-2019"],"statement":"The cited study reports random-circuit samples from a 53-qubit superconducting processor and cross-entropy-based verification for the reported circuit family.","replication":{"asOfDate":"2026-08-24","assessment":"This candidate records one bounded source package. 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Independent replications and contradictory measurements must be compiled as separate records before maturity is upgraded.","independentReplicationCount":null},"uncertainty":{"kind":"qualitative","statement":"No platform-independent uncertainty interval exists; numerical values remain attached to the source experiment or model and its stated assumptions."},"evidenceMaturity":"single-study"}],"sources":[{"id":"source-magesan-rb-2011","url":"https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.180504","title":"Scalable and Robust Randomized Benchmarking of Quantum Processes","rights":{"note":"Maha paraphrases the source-level result and links to the version of record; no article passage is reproduced.","basis":"citation-with-paraphrase","quotationUsed":false},"authors":["Easwar Magesan","J. M. 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